Scholarship has established the centrality of citizenship policies in state-building agendas but has largely neglected their linkages to democratic struggles in post-communist contexts. This paper highlights the resilient nature of citizenship laws following their initial determination, which often reflects the dominant political project’s vision of the ‘people’. It argues that while citizenship laws remain resilient during democratisation, they become vulnerable to manipulation during democratic backsliding, when populist and authoritarian leaders seek to selectively expand or restrict the citizenry.

The paper first contextualises these linkages by discussing citizenship policies and the different directions of democratisation, state, and nation-building in post-communist Europe. It then focuses on the cases of Montenegro and Serbia, where state and nation building and democratisation had different 'meeting points'. Drawing on original research and interviews with key stakeholders in both countries, the paper provides insights into the politics of citizenship resilience and reform. It examines not only how citizenship policies evolved within the broader context of state-building and democratisation, but also explores what inhibited their change during democratic transitions and backsliding.